ࡱ> a ajbjb11 ~[[[*******4:%%%%L%t:\40j&j&j&j&j&E'.s'' 3333333,5R74*'E'E'''4.**j&j&4...'L*j&*j&3.^$****'3..**.^& W%*@..,40\4.8.8..*::d %::%Running head: SERVICE LEARNING & CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS Service Learning and Critical Consciousness Development among Youth of Color in Poverty Matthew A. Diemer Michigan State University Revision Date: 5.31.07 Service Learning and Critical Consciousness Development among Youth of Color in Poverty Westheimer and Kahne (2004) delineated between more traditional, or participatory, and more critical, or justice-oriented, service learning programs. Participatory service learning fulfills a clear societal or community need and is oriented toward helping the disadvantaged, such as volunteering at a soup kitchen for the homeless (Abowitz & Harnish, 2006). Critical service learning seeks to critique and transform inequitable social conditions that create societal and community problems such as poverty and hunger (Cipolle, 2007; Maybach, 1996; Morsillo & Prilleltensky, in press). Paulo Freires notion of critical consciousness (1973; 1993) and youth sociopolitical development theorists (Ginwright & James, 2002; Ginwright & Cammarota, 2003; Watts, Griffith & Abdul-Adil, 1999; Watts & Flanagan, in press) provide a theoretical framework to conceptualize the consciousness of social injustice and motivation to produce social change germane to critical service learning programs. In short, critical consciousness entails an awareness of sociopolitical inequality, such as the asymmetrical distribution of wealth and resources, and a motivation to produce social change through social action and protest. Some qualitative studies have suggested that traditional service learning participation may facilitate critical consciousness development among predominantly White and more affluent participants. Westheimer and Kahnes (2004) analyses of service learning programs suggested that participation in traditional service learning activities by predominantly White suburban youth does not translate into increases in youths critical consciousness. However, predominantly White undergraduates appeared to develop a greater consciousness of poverty and racial inequality and feelings of collective social responsibility through participating in traditional service learning activities in Rhoads (1998) qualitative study. Cipolle (2007) found that traditional service learning activities may in fact facilitate more affluent White youths critical consciousness if these activities are supplemented by school-based discussions of social inequality and support for sociopolitical consciousness. In sum, it is unclear if traditional service learning in and of itself is facilitative of critical consciousness development (Rhoads, 1998), has no effect upon critical consciousness development (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004), or may be facilitative of critical consciousness development if supplemented by school-based support for critical consciousness development (Cipolle, 2007). Traditional Service Learning However, the role of traditional service learning in fostering critical consciousness development among Poor Youth of Color (PYOC) has not been examined in previous research. PYOC predominantly live in lower-income communities more profoundly affected by sociopolitical inequality (Ginwright & James, 2002). If traditional service learning activities are carried out in communities more profoundly affected by social, economic, and racial inequality then traditional service learning activities may foster critical consciousness development. That is, participation in traditional service learning and helping others similarly and clearly affected by sociopolitical oppression may be facilitative of critical consciousness development among PYOC. For example, many who provided relief assistance to the Gulf Region following Hurricane Katrina emerged from the experience with a greater consciousness of inequality and increased motivation to produce social change, based on the social conditions that they observed. Traditional forms of service learning (e.g. helping the disadvantaged) may also be an opportunity for learning and analysis of the sociopolitical conditions that create disadvantage. In turn, participation in traditional service learning and fostering positive change in communities affected by sociopolitical oppression may also facilitate the motivation to change these sociopolitical conditions. Transformational Teacher Practices The role of school-based support for critical consciousness development may be an underconsidered, yet important, factor in the relationships between traditional service learning and critical consciousness development. Maybach (1996) argued that more traditional, or missionary service learning, that is oriented toward helping the disadvantaged must also include structured support for understanding the sociopolitical context that creates disadvantage to facilitate the critical consciousness of service learning participants. That is, transformational pedagogical practices that provide opportunities for analysis of and reflection upon sociopolitical inequality may be necessary for traditional service learning programs to have an impact upon participants critical consciousness development (OGrady, 2000). Relatedly, Diemer et al. (2006) suggested that peer, parental, and community support for challenging gender, racial, and social inequality is facilitative of critical consciousness development among urban adolescents. Balcazar, Tandon, and Kaplan (2001) suggested that classroom discussions of sociopolitical inequality had an impact upon the critical consciousness of urban early adolescents. The literature is unclear whether a) (as reviewed in the previous paragraph), service learning participation, b) transformational teacher practices, or c) the combination of service learning participation and transformational pedagogical practices that has an impact upon the critical consciousness of service learning participants. This tension in the literature suggests three hypothesized relationships between traditional service learning, transformational teacher practices, and the synthesis of these two domains in facilitating critical consciousness development among PYOC. The present study will also expand upon previous inquiry by examining these constructs among youth of color who reside in poverty. These relationships will be tested using structural equation modeling (SEM), because of SEMs capacity to specify and control for measurement error, capacity to test the direction of structural relationships, and capacity to test the fit of theoretically rich conceptual models (Bollen, 1989; Martens, 2005). SEM will complement existing qualitative research that has examined the relationships between service learning and critical consciousness development among predominantly White and more affluent youth. In the present study, SEM will afford the examination of the unique effects of traditional service learning participation and transformational teacher practices upon critical consciousness development. SEM will also afford the specification and modeling of the component parts of critical consciousness. Previous service learning research (Cipolle, 2007; Rhoads, 1998) has examined a more general critical consciousness construct, rather than examining the component parts suggested by the literature. However, previous theory and research have suggested that critical consciousness is composed of a consciousness of sociopolitical inequality and the motivation to reduce sociopolitical inequality (Diemer & Blustein, 2006; Diemer et al., 2006; Diemer, Hsieh & Pan, in press; Diemer & Hsieh, in press; Freire, 1973, 1993). Additionally, the relationships between these components can be examined using SEM, as sociopolitical consciousness is theorized to facilitate the motivation to reduce sociopolitical inequality. Figure 1, the conceptual model, depicts the hypothesized relationships between latent constructs that will be examined with the IEA Civic Education (CivEd) dataset, using SEM. Reviewing the conceptual model, traditional service learning is hypothesized to have a direct effect upon sociopolitical consciousness. In turn, sociopolitical consciousness is hypothesized to have a direct effect upon the motivation to reduce sociopolitical inequality. The indirect effect of traditional service learning upon the motivation to reduce sociopolitical inequality will be examined via sociopolitical consciousness. Because of a dearth of scholarship in this domain, an alternative model where traditional service learning has a direct effect upon expected sociopolitical action, rather than an indirect effect via sociopolitical consciousness, will also be fitted. Transformational teacher practices are theorized to have a direct effect upon sociopolitical consciousness and an indirect effect upon the motivation to reduce sociopolitical inequality (via sociopolitical consciousness). ---Insert Figure 1 about here--- Method Data Source Participants will be selected from the Civic Education (CivEd) survey conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) in 1999. CivEd is a large scale survey that assessed aspects of civic engagement and service learning experiences among adolescents from twenty-nine countries (Husveldt, Barber & Torney-Purta, 2005). The present study will examine the 2, 811 CivEd participants from the U.S. who were in the 9th grade at the time of data collection. The U.S. CivEd sample contained slightly more female (1,392, 49.5%) than male participants (1,375, 48.9%). Participants self-identified as White (1,811, 69.0%), Black/African American (518, 18.4%), Asian (154, 5.5%), American Indian (130, 4.6%), or Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (85, 3.0%). Of these participants, 430 (15.3%) self-identified their ethnicity as Hispanic/Latino. Variables List The variables used to operationalize traditional service learning, transformational teacher support, sociopolitical consciousness, and the motivation to reduce sociopolitical inequality, along with the potential response options for each indicator, are detailed in Table 1. ---Insert Table 1 about here--- Anticipated Results & Discussion: An unanswered question in the literature is whether a) traditional service learning performed in communities more affected by sociopolitical oppression b) teacher support for challenging racism, sexism, and injustice or c) a combination of both traditional service learning activities and transformational teacher support has an impact upon critical consciousness development among PYOC. This project may provide empirical support for the Katrina Effect, or how individuals who participate in more traditional service learning/civic participation may emerge with a greater consciousness of social, economic and political inequality and an orientation toward reducing social inequality (c.f. Rhoads, 1998). Diverging from Westheimer and Kahne (2004), this work would help us to understand how traditional service learning may in fact facilitate youths capacity for social analysis and become involved in social action to reduce inequality in their communities. Alternatively, the obtained structural model may suggest that transformational teacher support has an impact upon critical consciousness development among PYOC (c.f. Diemer et al., 2006). Finally, traditional service learning activities complemented by pedagogical support to analyze and challenge the root sociopolitical conditions that make traditional service learning activities necessary may have the greatest impact upon critical consciousness development among PYOC (c.f. Cipolle, 2007). This project may facilitate our understanding of service learning among youth of color who reside in poverty, and the role of service learning in spurring other forms of civic participation. The conceptual framework in this study could also be applied in future research to examine what role service learning plays in facilitating this populations engagement with traditional forms (e.g. voting) of civic engagement. This work may inform the development and delivery of service learning programs in schools and community organizations, particularly for poor youth of color. Given that the practice of service learning tends to take a more traditional perspective (Abowitz & Harnish, 2006), this research may inform more critical approaches to the practice and pedagogy of service learning, particularly among PYOC. Limitations/Conceptual Issues for Further Scrutiny Although CivEd provides a rich source of data with a diverse group of participants and their teachers, there are some limitations in the operationalization of constructs using existing data. The operationalization of traditional service learning contains both participatory (e.g. participation in groups to help ones community) and attitudinal (e.g. a good citizen participates in activities to help the community.) Transformational teacher support is operationalized more indirectly (via teachers self-reported views and values), rather than observations of teachers in classrooms. This operationalization assumes that teachers who believe that human/civil rights, gender, and culture are important considerations in civic education and will enact these views in their teaching practice. Similarly, the motivation to reduce inequality also reflects self-reported motivation to reduce sociopolitical inequality, rather than actual participation in activities to bring about social change. References Abowitz, K.K. & Harnish, J. (2006). Contemporary discourses of citizenship. Review of Education Research, 76(4), 653-690. Anderson, J.C. & Gerbing, D.W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411-423. Balcazar, F., Tandon, S.D., & Kaplan, D. (2001). A classroom-based approach for promoting critical consciousness among African-American youth. The Community Psychologist, 34(1), 30-32. Bollen, K.A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley. Campbell, C. & MacPhail, C. (2002). Peer education, gender and the development of critical consciousness: Participatory HIV prevention by South African youth. Social Science & Medicine, 55 331-345. Cipolle, S.B. (2007). Service-learning and critical consciousness development: A path to social justice. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. Diemer, M.A. & Blustein, D.L. (2006). Critical consciousness and career development among urban youth. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(2), 220-232 Diemer, M.A. & Hsieh, C. (in press). Sociopolitical development and vocational expectations among lower-SES Adolescents of Color. Career Development Quarterly. Diemer, M.A., Hsieh, C. & Pan, T. (in press). School and parental influences upon sociopolitical development among poor Adolescents of Color. The Counseling Psychologist. Diemer, M.A., Kauffman, A.L., Koenig, N.B., Trahan, E.B. & Hsieh, C. (2006). Challenging racism, sexism, and social injustice: Support for urban adolescents critical consciousness development. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(3), 444-460. Flora, D.B. & Curran, P. (2004). An empirical evaluation of alternative methods of estimation for confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data. Psychological Methods, 9(4), 466-491. Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. New York: Continuum. Freire, P. (1993). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum. Garbarino, J. (1995). Raising children in a socially toxic environment. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ginwright, S. & Cammarota, J. (2003). New terrain in youth development: The promise of a social justice approach. Social Justice, 29(4), 82-95. Ginwright, S. & James, T. (2002). From assets to agents of change: Social justice, organizing, and youth development. New Directions for Youth Development, 96, 27-46. Hahn, C. & Torney-Purta, J. (1999). The IEA Civic Education Project: National and international perspectives. Social Education, 65 (7), 425-431. Hu, L. & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55. Husfeldt, V., Barber, C. & Torney-Purta, J. (2005). Students social attitudes and expected political participation: New scales in the enhanced database of the IEA Civic Education Study. College Park, MD: Civic Education Data and Researcher Services. Martens, M. P. (2005). The use of structural equation modeling in counseling psychology research. The Counseling Psychologist, 33(3), 269-298. Martn-Bar, I. (1994). Writings for a liberation psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Maybach, C.W. (1996). Investigating urban community needs: Service learning from a social justice perspective. Education and Urban Society, 28, 224-236. Morsillo, J. & Prilleltensky, I. (in press). Social action with youth: Interventions, evaluation and psychopolitical validity. Journal of Community Psychology. Murphy, B.K. (1999). Transforming ourselves, transforming the world: An open conspiracy for social change. New York, NY: Zed Books. Mustakova-Possardt, E. (1998). Critical consciousness: An alternative pathway for positive personal and social development. Journal of Adult Development, 5(1), 13-30. Muthn, L.K. and Muthn, B.O. (2006).Mplus User's Guide.Los Angeles: Muthn & Muthn. Muthn, B.O. & Satorra, A. (1995). Complex sample data in structural equation modeling. Sociological Methodology, (25), 267-316. OGrady, C.R. (2000). Integrating service learning and multicultural education: An overview. In C.R. OGrady (Ed.), Integrating service learning into multicultural education in colleges and universities (p. 1-20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Quintana, S.M. & Segura-Herrera, T.A. (2003). Developmental transformations of self and identity in the context of oppression. Self and Identity, 2, 269-285. Rhoads, R.A. (1998). In the service of citizenship: A study of student involvement in community service. The Journal of Higher Education, 69(3), 277-297. Sivo, S.A., Fan, X., Witta, E.L. & Willse, J.T. (2006). The search for optimal cutoff properties: Fit index criteria in structural equation modeling. The Journal of Experimental Education, 74(3), 267-288. Stapleton, L.M. (2002). The incorporation of sample weights into multilevel structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(4), 475-502. Torney-Purta, J. (2002). The school's role in developing civic engagement: A study of adolescents in twenty-eight countries. Applied Developmental Science, 6, 202-211. Torney-Purta, J., & Amadeo, J. (2003). A cross-national analysis of political and civic involvement among adolescents. Political Science and Politics, 36. 269-274. Torney-Purta, J., Barber, C., & Wilkenfeld, B. (in press). Differences in the civic knowledge and attitudes of U.S. adolescents by immigrant status and Hispanic background. Prospects. Torney-Purta, J., Barber, C., & Wilkenfeld, B. (in press). Latino adolescents civic development in the United States: Research results from the IEA Civic Education Study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Torney-Purta, J., Richardson, W., & Barber, C. (2005). Teachers experience and sense of confidence in relation to students civic understanding and engagement across countries. International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education, 1(1), 32-57. Torney-Purta, J., Schwille, J., & Amadeo, J. (Eds.). (1999). Civic education across countries: Twenty-four case studies from the IEA Civic Education Project. Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, 622 pages. Watts, R.J. & Flanagan, C. (in press). Pushing the envelope on youth civic engagement: A developmental and liberation psychology perspective. Journal of Community Psychology. Watts, R.J., Griffith, D.M. & Abdul-Adil, J. (1999). Sociopolitical development as an antidote for oppression - theory and action. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(2), 255-271. Westheimer, J., & Kahne, J. (2004). What kind of citizen? The politics of educating for democracy. American Educational Research Journal, 41(2), 237-269. Table 1: Variables List Latent VariablesNELS Variable and Description Possible Responses BSGAS08, Participation in group to help the community1 = no, 2 = yes     BSGSA09, Participation in charity to raise money for a social cause 1 = no, 2 = yes BS5M6, Expect to volunteer to help poor or elderly in the community1 = certainly not, 2 = probably not, 3 = probably will, 4 = certainly will BS5M6, Expect to collect money for a social causeSAME AS ABOVE    BS3B9, An adult who is a good citizen participates in activities to help the community (Optional variable to be considered for analyses)SAME AS ABOVE    Transformational Teacher SupportBTCIGNOR, To become good adult citizens, students should learn to ignore a law that violates human rights 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree    BTCPROTE, To become good adult citizens, students should learn to recognize the importance of participating in a peaceful protest against a law believed to be unjust SAME AS ABOVE    BTCPROTE, To become good adult citizens, students should learn to recognize the importance of taking part in activities that promote human rightsSAME AS ABOVE    BTCIHUMA, Importance of human and civil rights for civic education 1 = not important, 2 = of little importance, 3 = important, 4 = very important     BTCIEQUA, Importance of equal opportunities for men and women for civic educationSAME AS ABOVEBTCIEQUA, Importance of cultural differences & minorities for civic educationSAME AS ABOVESociopolitical ConsciousnessB3SA10, When people that are critical of the government are forbidden from speaking at public meetings, that is 1 = very bad for democracy, 2 = somewhat bad, 3 = somewhat good, 4 = very good for democracy    B3SA10, When laws that are unfair to women are changed, that is SAME AS ABOVE    B3SA2, When differences in income between rich and poor are small, that isSAME AS ABOVEBS3C7, To reduce differences in wealth and income among people1 = definitely should not be governments responsibility, 2 = probably should not be, 3 = probably should be, 4 = definitely should be    BS3C9, To provide equal political opportunities for men and womenSAME AS ABOVE    Motivation to Reduce InequityBS3B11, An adult who is a good citizen would participate in activities promoting human rights 1 = not important, 2 = of little importance, 3 = important, 4 = very important    BS3B5, An adult who is a good citizen would participate in peaceful protest against a law believed to be unjustSAME AS ABOVE   BS5M4, Do you expect that you will write letters to a newspaper about social or political concerns as an adult1 = certainly not do this, 2 = probably not, 3 = probably will, 4 = certainly will    BS5M9, Do you expect that you will participate in a peaceful march or rally in the near futureSAME AS ABOVE     BS5M12, Do you expect that you will occupy a public building in protest in the near futureSAME AS ABOVE      Figure Captions Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Service Learning, Transformational Consciousness & Future Transformational Civic Engagement  78:-.BCDab   %((((N))**f,g,v,-----5666 ;C;M;N;O;ٸ٧ٟ糗~vh[h6hO&\h0J6]h~>Ch6 h5hY:Dh6hh]h wh0J6H* h6hqh]hh0J h0Jjh0JU h0J6 h hh hF'h hE>*hF'hE>*.89:;. 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